In most big cities, it is easier
2 . As Frans de Waal, a primatologist (灵长动物学家), recognizes, a better way to think about other creatures would be to ask ourselves how different species have developed different kinds of minds to solve different adaptive problems. Surely the important question is not whether animals can do the same things humans can, but how those animals solve the cognitive (认知的) problems they face, like how to imitate the sea floor. Children and some animals are so interesting not because they are smart like us, but because they are smart in ways we haven’t even considered.
Sometimes studying children’s ways of knowing can cast light on adult-human cognition. Children’s pretend play may help us understand our adult taste for fiction. De Waal’s research provides another interesting example. We human beings tend to think that our social relationships are rooted in our perceptions, beliefs, and desires, and our understanding of the perceptions, beliefs, and desires of others — what psychologists call our “theory of mind.” In the 80s and 90s, developmental psychologists showed that pre-schoolers and even infants understand minds apart from their own. But it was hard to show that other animals did the same. “Theory of mind” became a candidate for the special, uniquely human trick.
Yet de Waal’s studies show that chimps (黑猩猩) possess a remarkably developed political intelligence — they are much interested in figuring out social relationships. It turns out, as de Waal describes, that chimps do infer something about what other chimps see. But experimental studies also suggest that this happens only in a competitive political context. The evolutionary anthropologist (人类学家) Brain Hare and his colleagues gave a junior chimp a choice between pieces of food that a dominant chimp had seen hidden and other pieces it had not seen hidden. The junior chimp, who watched all the hiding, stayed away from the food the dominant chimp had seen, but took the food it hadn’t seen.
Anyone who has gone to an academic conference will recognize that we may be in the same situation. We may say that we sign up because we’re eager to find out what other human beings think, but we’re just as interested in who’s on top. Many of the political judgments we make there don’t have much to do with our theory of mind. We may show our respect to a famous professor even if we have no respect for his ideas.
Until recently, however, there wasn’t much research into how humans develop and employ this kind of political knowledge. It may be that we understand the social world in terms of dominance, like chimps, but we’re just not usually as politically motivated as they are. Instead of asking whether we have a better everyday theory of mind, we might wonder whether they have a better everyday theory of politics.
1. According to the first paragraph, which of the following shows that an animal is smart?A.It can behave like a human kid. |
B.It can imitate what human beings do. |
C.It can find a solution to its own problem. |
D.It can figure out those adaptive problems. |
A.We talk with infants in a way that they can fully understand. |
B.We make guesses at what others think while interacting with them. |
C.We hide our emotions when we try establishing contact with a stranger. |
D.We try to understand how kids’ pretend play affects our taste for fiction. |
A.Neither human nor animals display their preference for dominance. |
B.Animals living in a competitive political context are smarter. |
C.Both humans and some animals have political intelligence. |
D.Humans are more interested in who’s on top than animals. |
A.we know little about how chimps are politically motivated |
B.our political knowledge doesn’t always determine how we behave |
C.our theory of mind might enable us to understand our theory of politics |
D.more research should be conducted to understand animals’ social world |
3 . Living in a city is a well-known risk factor for developing a mental disorder, while living close to nature is largely beneficial for mental health and the brain. A central brain region, the amygdala (大脑杏仁核)involved in stress processing, has been shown to be less activated during stress in people living in rural areas, compared to those who live in cities, hinting at the potential benefits of nature. “But so far the hen-and-egg problem could not be resolved, namely whether nature actually caused the effects in the brain or whether the particular individuals chose to live in rural or urban regions,” says Sonja Sudimac.
To achieve causal evidence, the researchers from the group examined brain activity in regions involved in stress processing in 63 healthy volunteers before and after a one-hour walk in Grunewald forest or a shopping street with traffic in Berlin. The results revealed that activity in the amygdala decreased after the walk in nature, suggesting that nature elicits beneficial effects on brain regions related to stress.
“The results support the previously assumed positive relationship between nature and brain health, but this is the first study to prove the causal link. Interestingly, the brain activity after the urban walk in these regions remained stable and showed no increases, which argues against a commonly held view that urban exposure causes additional stress,” explains Simone Kühn, head of the group.
The authors show that nature has a positive impact on brain regions involved in stress processing and that it can already be observed after a one-hour walk. This contributes to the understanding of how our physical living environment affects brain and mental health. Even a short exposure to nature decreases amygdala activity, suggesting that a walk in nature could serve as a preventive measure against developing mental health problems and reducing the potentially disadvantageous impact of the city on the brain.
In order to investigate beneficial effects of nature in different populations and age groups, the researchers are currently working on a study examining how a one-hour walk in natural versus urban environments impacts stress in mothers and their babies.
1. What does the hen-and-egg problem mean by Sonja Sudimac?A.Living in rural areas actually affects brain activity. |
B.People in cities tend to have a higher risk of mental problems. |
C.It’s unnecessary to work out the complex issue of stress and health. |
D.It’s hard to clarify the impact of living environment on mental health. |
A.By quoting authoritative experts. | B.By interviewing healthy volunteers. |
C.By researching on a previous theory. | D.By comparing volunteers’ amygdala activities. |
A.Benefits of a regular walk in nature. | B.The focus of the follow-up research. |
C.An appeal for living in urban regions. | D.Nature’s positive effects on women and children. |
Alle Pierce knows how to plan a holiday. A few months ahead of time, she constructs a spreadsheet of what she wants to do and see. She examines the menus of restaurants she is planning to visit. She uses a picture of the destination as her phone’s locked screen image and downloads a countdown app. “What’s so exciting about a trip is the anticipation before it,” says Pierce, founder of a luxury travel company.
Experts stay she is right. Recent studies suggest that hoping for something boosts your mood and lowers your stress. “Imagining good things ahead of us can increase motivation, optimism and patience,” says Simon Rego, a psychologist from New York.
Of course we can’t just book a flight every time we need a little cheering up or feel low. But there are ways to incorporate the power of anticipation into your everyday life.
Get excited about little things. Write down one thing you’re excited for tomorrow. Maybe it’s a new book, or a package you’re expecting. The collection of these mini thrills means you will still gain the benefits of looking forward to something. Plus, with the nearer stuff, there’s more of a sense that it’s going to happen for sure.
Remember that anxiety and anticipation can coexist. “The dark side of positive anticipation is anticipatory anxiety. Anxiety and excitement are sister emotions,” says Christian Waugh, a psychology professor from North Carolina. But it is harmful only when you just focus on the anxiety part and ignore the excitement part. The key is acknowledging the happy, positive aspect of what you are doing, along with the nervous feelings. When you consider anxious things as exciting, it actually makes you feel better about them.
Connect with your future self. Research has shown feeling as if you are on a path to your future self can have a positive effect on your well-being by getting you out of short-term thinking. Thinking ahead may help you prioritize your goal and move toward it. As you start seeing progress, you will look forward to doing the things that get you closer to your future self.
In short, to enjoy life more, embrace anticipation. It’s worth waiting for.
1. What makes a trip exciting according to Alle Pierce?2. How does hoping for something benefit us?
3. Please decide which part is false in the following statement, then underline it and explain why.
According to the research, connecting with your future self can have a negative effect on your well-being.
4. Please give an example to show how you can incorporate the power of anticipation into your daily life. (In about 40 words)
5 . An AI model can be used to detect stress in office workers based on how they use their mouse and keyboard. A new study suggests that a machine-learning model using these two elements was more accurate at detecting stress in people than a model that tracked their heart-rate data.
“We saw that the models that just used the mouse and keyboard data performed better than the models that had the heart-rate data in it,” says Mart Naegelin. a Ph. D. student at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, and one of the study’s authors.
Naegelin and her fellow researchers used machine-learning models to analyze data on keyboard-typing activity, mouse movements and heart-rate data. They also studied the data of a combination of two or all three of these elements to determine which performed best in terms of measuring stress. They found that the model trained on mouse and keyboard data performed better than the model that used mouse, keyboard and heart rates. Of the single-modality (形态) models, the heart-rate data performed the worst. “The test was conducted in an environment that simulated an office environment, so the results still need to be confirmed in real-life scenarios (情况),” Naegelin says.
In the experiment, participants were divided into three groups. A control group carried out assigned tasks, such as planning meetings and collecting data, with no additional work. A second group at times answered questions from managers in person in a mock interview scenario while completing other assigned tasks. And members of a third group were, at certain points, interrupted with additional questions sent through an online chat on top of tasks assigned to other groups. At regular intervals during the experiment, participants were asked to rate their stress levels through a computer questionnaire.
Researchers learned that workers made longer, less accurate movements with their mouse, as well as more typing errors, when they were stressed. Shorter, more direct movements with the mouse were tied to lower stress levels. The study didn’t focus on why increased levels of stress are thought to affect muscle activity.
The researchers say they believe a stress-detection system that logs keyboard and mouse movements might be beneficial as a self-help tool for employees alongside other initiatives to improve workplace mental health. But employee participation would need to be optional and based on informed consent (同意), and companies would need to commit to protecting user privacy.
It remains to be seen how this technology will evolve and be adopted in practice, but the potential for AI to contribute positively to employee well-being is an appealing avenue for future exploration.
1. What do we know from Naegelin’s study?A.Heart-rate data has little connection with stress. |
B.Mouse and keyboard data proves effective in stress detection. |
C.Mouse data performs worst in measuring stress among all models. |
D.Using more elements in a model increases accuracy in stress detection. |
A.The research process. | B.The research findings. |
C.The research purpose. | D.The research background. |
A.AI models based on mouse and keyboard data have been widely applied. |
B.Naegelin’s study explains why muscle activity can affect stress levels. |
C.Employers need to respect employees’ privacy while detecting stress. |
D.A stress-detection system improves physical health at the workplace. |
A.To introduce a new model to detect stress. |
B.To compare different models in stress detection. |
C.To show the disadvantages of being overstressed. |
D.To state the importance of a stress-detection system. |
6 . Frozen in time, a 125-million-year-old mammal attacking a dinosaur. A 39-million-year-old whale, the heaviest animal that ever lived. The oldest known jellyfish, from 505 million years ago. Paleontology (古生物学) produces newsworthy discoveries.
Fossils (化石), moreover, provide direct evidence for the long history of life, allowing paleontologists to test hypotheses (假设) about evolution with data only they provide. They allow investigation of present and past life on Earth. Flows of biological diversity, appearances of new life forms and the extinctions of long existing ones, would go undiscovered without these efforts. But the headlines over exciting new fossils greatly underestimate the true importance of paleontology. Its real significance lies in how such discoveries brighten the grand history of life on Earth. From its beginnings, more than three billion years ago, to the present day, fossils record how life adapted or disappeared in the face of major environmental challenges.
Paleontologists provide us with a unique vantage on modern climate change. They play an essential role in interpreting ancient environments, in reconstructing ancient oceans, continents and climates. Fossils provide key limitation on the climate models that are essential for predicting future climate change. And the fossil record gives important insights into how life will respond to predicted future climate conditions, because these have occurred before in Earth’s history.
In addition, paleontology has provided a fundamental contribution to human thought: the reality of species extinction and thus of a world that has dramatically changed over time. In documenting the history of life, paleontologists recognized that many extinction episodes could occur suddenly, such as the event 66 million years ago that ended the dinosaurs. The search for the causes of past mass extinctions started pioneering studies from across the scientific spectrum (科学界), focusing on potential future threats to humanity.
Not only do paleontologists know what happens to life when things go bad, they also know how long it takes for ecosystems and biodiversity to recover from these disasters, which can take far longer than modern humans have existed.
Paleontologists thus provide a unique perspective on the nature and future long-term ecological impact of the current human-produced biodiversity crisis, the so-called Sixth Extinction, and therefore the importance of protecting modern biodiversity. The very concept of a Sixth Extinction would not exist without paleontologists documenting the first five.
Paleontologists know that understanding life’s past is critical to anticipating and adapting to life’s and humanity’s future. Paleontology is important because it brings its unique and critical perspective to current challenges in climate change, biodiversity loss and the environment. Paleontologists can predict the future because they know the past.
1. The first two paragraphs are written to _______.A.describe an event | B.raise a question |
C.present an opinion | D.make a comparison |
A.A positive effect. | B.A valuable suggestion. |
C.A quick decision. | D.A comprehensive view. |
A.Ecological recovery takes shorter than imagined. |
B.Past lessons can help to predict the future threats. |
C.Paleontologists can handle the biodiversity crisis. |
D.Fossil studies focus on the causes of mass extinctions. |
A.Paleontology: A Pioneering Study |
B.Paleontology: A History Recorder |
C.Paleontology Tells More About Nature Than Humans |
D.Paleontology Is Far More Than New Fossil Discoveries |
7 . Is It Worth Buying Organic Food?
Organic food, grown without artificial chemicals, is increasingly popular nowadays. Consumers have been willing to pay up to twice as much for goods with organic labels (标签). However, if you think paying a little more for organic food gets you a more nutritious (有营养的) and safer product, you might want to save your money. A study led by researchers at Stanford University says that organic products aren’t necessarily more nutritious, and they’re no less likely to suffer from disease-causing bacteria, either.
The latest results, published in the Annuals of Internal Medicine, suggest that buyers may be wasting their money. “We did not find strong evidence that organic food is more nutritious or healthier,” says Dr. Crystal Smith-Spangler from Stanford. “So consumers shouldn’t assume that one type of food has a lower risk or is safer.”
For their new study, Smith-Spangler and her colleagues conducted a review of two categories of research, including 17 studies that compared health outcomes between consumers of organic against traditional food products, and 223 studies that analyzed the nutritional content of the foods, including key vitamins, minerals and fats.
While the researchers found little difference in nutritional content, they did find that organic fruit and vegetables were 20% less likely to have chemicals remaining on the surfaces. Neither organic nor traditional foods showed levels of chemicals high enough to go beyond food safety standards. And both organic and traditional meats, such as chicken and pork, were equally likely to be harmed by bacteria at very low rates. The researchers did find that organic milk and chicken contained higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids, a healthy fat also found in fish that can reduce the risk of heart disease. However, these nutritional differences were too small, and the researchers were unwilling to make much of them until further studies confirm the trends.
Organic food is produced with fewer chemicals and more natural-growing practices, but that doesn’t always translate into a more nutritious or healthier product. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) states that “Whether you buy organic or not, finding the freshest foods available may have the biggest effect on taste.” Fresh food is at least as good as anything marketed as organic.
1. The new research questions whether organic food ________.A.should replace traditional food |
B.has been overpriced by farmers |
C.is grown with less harmful chemicals |
D.is really more nutritious and healthier |
A.organic food could reduce the risk of heart disease |
B.traditional food was grown with more natural methods |
C.both organic and traditional food they examined were safe |
D.there was not a presence of any forms of bacteria in organic food |
A.Organic chicken and pork. |
B.Organic milk and chicken. |
C.Traditional chicken and pork. |
D.Traditional fruit and vegetables. |
A.Doubtful. | B.Positive. | C.Unconcerned. | D.Approving. |
Wearing masks is widely believed to be a simple but useful method to protect oneself from a variety of harmful things. In fact, masks have been helping mankind for centuries.
In the first century, many people in Roman Empire worked underground in mines. But most of them suffered from and even eventually died of breathing illnesses. To work out this problem, Pliny the Elder, a Roman philosopher (哲学家) and naturalist, recommended the use of animal bladder (膀胱) skins to stop dust from being breathed in. Thus, Pliny the Elder was considered the inventor of the first recorded mask.
Early inventions did not stop with Pliny. Around the 16th century, Italian artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci suggested using a cloth wetted in water over the face to protect against the poisonous chemicals (化学物质).
The design of the mask took a big step forward in the 19th century. In 1848, American Lewis Hassley became the first person to get the official right to produce a protective mask for miners, which was a milestone in face mask history. Masks at this stage were similar to gas masks. Later, in 1897, Polish-Austrian doctor Johann von Mikuliez-Radecki designed a simple mask made up of one piece of medical gauze (纱布), recommending medical workers to wear it to prevent getting diseases. That was the first recorded use of a medical mask.
In 1910, a terrible disease broke out in Northeast China. Chinese doctor Wu Liande designed a cheap face mask called “Wu’s mask”, which was made of two pieces of medical gauze. This mask was praised by experts around the world, as it was simple and cheap to make.
With the happening of widely spreading diseases and the rise of air pollution, the materials in masks have continued to develop to better protect the wearers in modern times. For example, mask models such as N95 and KN90, which can help prevent smog from being breathed in, have become highly popular.
1. Who was considered the inventor of the first recorded mask? (不多于三个单词)2. What was the first medical mask made of? (不多于两个单词)
3. Why was “Wu’s mask” praised by experts around the world? (不多于八个单词)
4. What is the main idea of the passage? (不多于四个单词)
The fact that humans live longer than ever before cuts both ways, because the more time we spend on the planet, the more things can go disordered in our
10 . Essentially, everyone has two ages: a chronological(按时间计算的) age, how old the calendar says you are, and a biological age, basically the age at which your body functions as it compares to average fitness or health levels.
“Chronological age isn’t how old we really are. It’s merely a number,” said Professor David Sinclair at Harvard University. “It is biological age that determines our health and ultimately our lifespan(寿命). We all age biologically at different rates according to our genes, what we eat, how much we exercise, and what environment we live in. Biological age is the number of candles we really should be blowing out. In the future, with advances in our ability to control biological age, we may have even fewer candles on our birthday cake than the previous one.”
To calculate biological age, Professor Levine at Yale University identified nine bio-markers that seemed to be the most influential on lifespan by a simple blood test. The numbers of those markers, such as blood sugar and immune measures, can be put into the computer, and the algorithm(算法) does the rest.
Perhaps what’s most important here is that these measures can be changed. Doctors can take this information and help patients make changes to lifestyle, and hopefully take steps to improve their biological conditions. “I think the most exciting thing about this research is that these things aren’t set in stone,” Levine said. “People can be given the information earlier and take steps to improve their health before it’s too late.”
Levine even entered her own numbers into the algorithm. She was surprised by the results. “I always considered myself a very healthy person. I’m physically active; I eat what I consider a fairly healthy diet. But I did not find my results to be as good as I had hoped they would be. It was a wake-up call,” she said.
Levine is working with a group to provide access to the algorithm online so that anyone can calculate their biological age, identify potential risks and take steps to improve their own health in the long run. “No one wants to live an extremely long life with a lot of chronic diseases,” Levine said. “By delaying the development of mental and physical functioning problems, people can still be engaged in society in their senior years. That is the ideal we should be pursuing.”
1. Biological age depends on __________.A.what the calendar says about our age |
B.when we start to take outdoor exercise |
C.whether we can adapt ourselves to the environment |
D.how well our body works compared with our peers’ |
A.It is necessary to change our diet regularly. |
B.The test results may give us wrong information. |
C.Waking up early in the morning is good for our fitness. |
D.The algorithm can reveal our potential health problems. |
A.Bio-markers Can Make Us Younger |
B.Chronological Age and Biological Age |
C.Old People can Still be Engaged in Society |
D.Biological Age can Lag behind or Exceed Chronological Age |