No student of a foreign language needs to be told that gram mar is complex. By changing the order of the words and by adding a range of auxiliary verbs(助动词)and suffixes(后缀),we can turn a statement into a question, state whether an action has taken place or is soon to take place, and perform many other word tricks to convey different meanings. However, the question which many language experts can’t understand and explain is who created grammar?
Some recent languages evolved due to the Atlantic slave trade. Since the slaves didn’t know each other’s languages, they developed a make-shift language called a pidgin. Pidgins are strings of words copied from the language of the landowners. They have little in the way of grammar, and speakers need to use too many words to make their meaning understood. Interestingly, however, all it takes for a pidgin to become a complex language is for a group of children to be exposed to it at the time when they learn their mother tongue. Slave children didn’t simply copy the strings of words used by their elders. They adapted their words to create an expressive language. In this way complex grammar systems which come from pidgins were invented.
Further evidence can be seen in studying sign languages for the deaf. Sign languages are not simply a group of gestures; they use the same grammatical machinery that is found in spoken languages. The creation of one such language was documented quite recently in Nicaragua. Previously, although deaf children were taught speech and lip reading in the classrooms, in the playgrounds they began to invent their own sign system, using the gestures they used at home, It was basically a pidgin and there was no consistent grammar. However, a new system was born when children who joined the school later developed a quite different sign language. It was based on the signs of the older children, but it was shorter and easier to understand, and it had a largerange of special use of grammar to clarify the meaning. What’s more, they all used the signs in the same way. So the original pidgin was greatly improved.
Most experts believe that many of the languages were pidgins at first. They were initially used in different groups of people without standardization(标准化)and gradually evolved into a widely accepted system. The English past tense—“ed” ending — may have evolved from the verb “do”. “It ended” may once have been “ It end-did”. It seems that children have grammatical machinery in their brains. Their minds can serve to create logical and complex structures, even when there is no grammar present for them to copy.
1. What can be inferred about the slaves’ pidgin language? ________.A.It was difficult to understand. |
B.It came from different languages. |
C.It was created by the landowners. |
D.It contained highly complex grammar. |
A.No consistent signs were used for communication. |
B.Most of the gestures were made for everyday activities. |
C.The hand movements were smoother and more attractive. |
D.The meaning was clearer than the previous sign language. |
A.English grammar of past tense system is inaccurate. |
B.Children say English past tense differently from adults. |
C.The thought that English was once a pidgin is acceptable. |
D.Experts have proven that English was created by children. |
A.in the end | B.at the beginning | C.long ago | D.long before |
A.The Creators of Grammar |
B.The History of Languages |
C.Why Pidgins Came into Being |
D.How Grammar Systems Are Used |
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So, what exactly are you supposed to say when “thank you” is only the 20th most popular way to express gratitude? According to a recent survey, 19 other ways of expressing appreciation finished ahead of “thank you” in a poll of 3,000 people.
Pollsters(民测调查员) found almost half of those asked preferred the more informal “cheers”, while others liked to use such expressions as “ta”, “great” and “nice one”.
So, just what is the appropriate form of words to express your thanks?
Fortunately, the clue is in the language itself. “Cheers”, despite its popularity, is considered an informal way to say thank you — and this is a definite clue as to when you can best use it.
For instance, when going for a drink with friends, a smile and a “cheers” by way of thanks is not only appropriate to the situation, it is also culturally accurate.
“Ta”, originated from the Danish word “tak”, was the second-most popular expression of thanks, and is also commonly used in informal situations, along with phrases such as “nice one”, and “brilliant”. Interestingly, one word that didn’t make it into the top 20 was “thanks”, Thank you is shorter, more informal cousin.
“Thanks” can be useful, as it is able to bridge the divide between the formality of “thank you” and the downright relaxed “cheers”.
Certain words can double as an expression of thanks as well as delight. Again, the words themselves offer the clue as to when best to use them.
For example, words like “awesome”, “brilliant” and “you star” featured highly in the new poll and they can hint at both your pleasure at someone’s action, as well as serving to express your thanks. If you are on the receiving end of a “new” thank you, you can respond with a simple “no problem”, or “sure”.
Of course, in certain circumstances, a simple wave, nod or smile may be appropriate. For instance, if a car driver slows down to let you cross the road, simply raising your hand in acknowledgement is enough to show that you appreciate the driver’s consideration.
Sometimes, formality is necessary, and “thank you” is still the best choice in such situations. But students should not worry about when exactly to use certain expressions.
Many people in Western countries are worried that good manners are in decline. People are tired of seeing their acts of kindness and service pass without comment. So don’t think your “thank you” is clumsy or awkwardly formal. The chances are, if you said “thank you”, you made someone’s day. You star.
1. We can tell from the results of the poll that __________.
A.people are unconcerned about politeness nowadays. |
B.“thank you” remains the best expression of gratitude. |
C.there is a variety of expressions of appreciation. |
D.there are more formal expressions than informal ones. |
A.Thanks. | B.Sure. | C.Nice one. | D.Cheers. . |
A.show their gratitude to others. | B.behave themselves well. |
C.continue their acts of kindness. | D.stop worrying about bad manners. |
A.How to Appear More Polite . | B.Ways to Show Gratitude. |
C.Never hesitate to Say “Thank You”. | D.Good Manners in Decline! |
【推荐2】For a land where snow is hardly a winter rarity, it will come as little surprise that Scotland has several words for the cold white thing that falls from skies.
But few might expect the list to amount to a grand total of 421 separate terms designed to describe everything from small flakes(雪片)of wind-driven snow (“spitters”) to a figure in a snowstorm(“snaw-ghast”)
The list, which shows that the Scottish comfortably out-compete the 100 or so words used by the Inuits for snow, is part of a project to bring together the roots of every Scots word into a thesaurus (a book that contains lists of words that have similar meanings).
The online Scots Historical Thesaurus draws on forgotten words from outdated dialects (方言)to terms still used across Scotland today to attempt to record the full range of language used to describe daily life.
Initial research at the University of Glasgow has focused on two areas close to Scottish hearts-----the weather and sport.
Dr Susan Rennie, a Scots specialist at the university, said: “Weather has been a vital part of people’s lives in Scotland for centuries. The number and variety of words in the language show how important it was for our ancestors to communicate about the weather, which could so easily affect their lives.”
Researchers found that alongside many words for cloud and mist, Scots have excelled down the ages at dreaming up ways to describe the details of types of snow and the way in which it falls.
Someone interested in the weather would mix up “flindrikin” (a slight snow shower with a “bin-drift”, used to describe thick drifting(堆积)snow. The white thing can also “frog” (start to fall), “feefle” (twist around a corner)or “feuchter” (fall in sight flakes).
1. Which of the following comes as a surprise?A.There’s a lot of snow in Scotland |
B.There’re many dialects in Scotland |
C.Scotland has several words for snow |
D.There’re over 400 Scottish words for snow |
A.To record the daily language used by Scots |
B.To protect endangered languages in Scotland |
C.To carry out research into the climate in Scotland |
D.To let foreigners have a better idea of Scots culture |
A.how they made the world list |
B.how Scots communicate with each other |
C.why Scots like talking about the weather and sport |
D.why they did research on the vocabulary of the weather |
A.Feefle | B.Frog |
C.Blin-drift | D.Snaw-ghast |
【推荐3】Ever fought with a problem? Picked up a new skill? Encountered a difficult concept? The language of learning is full of references to parts of the body outside the brain. Perhaps that’s because these phrases suggest something deeper. Researchers are detecting that learning is easier, quicker and more long-lasting if it involves the body.
“In the past, people have argued that as we grow, we become more able to think abstractly (抽象地),” says Andrew Manches, a psychologist at the University of Edinburgh in the UK. Conventional (传统的) thinking might suggest that teachers should help prevent children from using body gestures to prepare them for the adult world. But in truth, the physical world never really leaves our thinking. For example, when we process verbs such as lick, kick and pick, medical scanners show that the parts of our brain that control the muscles in our face, legs and hands, respectively, light up with activity.
Science is beginning to back up the idea that actions really might speak louder than words in the classroom. Spencer Kelly, a psychologist at Colgate University in New York, has found that people spend three times as much time gesturing when they think the message they get across is remarkably important, suggesting that even if only at the subconscious (潜意识的) level, we appreciate the communicative value of our body language. Kelly has also found evidence that a teacher is more appealing to students when he or she uses arm and hand movements to stress points.
Also, some studies indicate that young children obtain more if their teacher uses gestures when explaining a concept. Meanwhile, Sunsan Wagner Cook, a psychologist at the University of Iowa in Iowa City, has found that children pick up new concepts more effectively, if they are taught to mirror and repeat gestures their teacher uses.
1. How did people in the past understand learning?A.The older a student grows, the less likely he will think abstractly. |
B.Teachers are advised to encourage students to use body gestures. |
C.Body gestures should be removed to promote adult-like thinking. |
D.The physical world never really leaves our thinking. |
A.By presenting different researches. |
B.By explaining some rules. |
C.By making some predictions. |
D.By analyzing the theory. |
A.People use gestures every time they convey the messages. |
B.Body movements can increase a teacher’s popularity. |
C.Young students like to mirror their teacher’s gestures. |
D.Body language is more powerful than spoken language. |
A.The Language of Learning: A Vital Approach |
B.Body Gestures: A Sharp Tool for Fast Learning |
C.Body Language: A Universal Language Signal |
D.Thinking Abstractly: A Symbol of Adult World |
阅读下列短文,从每题所给的四个选项(A、B、C和D)中,选出最佳选项,并在答题卡上将该项涂黑。
In their book Time to Eat the Dog: The Real Guide to Sustainable Living, Robert and Brenda Vale say keeping a medium sized dog has the same ecological impact as driving 10,000 km a year in a 4.6 liter Land Cruiser.
“We’re not actually saying it is time to eat the dog. We’ re just saying that we need to think about and know the ecological impact of some of the things we do and that we take for granted.”
Constructing and driving the jeep for a year requires 0.41 hectares of land, while growing and manufacturing a dog’s food takes about 0.84 hectares — or 1.1 hectares in the case of a large dog such as a German shepherd.
Convincing flesh eating cats and dogs to go vegetarian for the sake of the planet is a non starter, the Vales say. Instead they recommend keeping “greener”, smaller, and more sustainable pets, such as goldfish, chickens or rabbits.
The book’s playful title, and serious suggestion that pet animals may be usefully “recycled”, by being eaten by their owners or turned into pet food when they die, may not appeal to animal fans.
Annoying as the idea may be, the question is valid given the planet’s growing population and limited resources, Robert Vale said.
“Issues about sustainability are increasingly becoming things that are going to require us to make choices which are as difficult as eating your dog. It’s not just about changing your light bulbs or taking a cloth bag to the supermarket,” he said.
“It’s about much more challenging and difficult issues,” he added. “Once you see where cats and dogs fit in your overall balance of things, you might decide to have the cat but not also to have the two cars and the three bathrooms and be a meat eater yourself.”
1. The authors gave their book the playful title to________.
A.make it amusing | B.create a vivid image |
C.show writing skills | D.arouse people’ s concern |
A.the amount of consumed land | B.the neglected ecological impact |
C.some familiar examples | D.some actual figures |
A.Going vegetarian. | B.Raising cats and dogs. |
C.Using a cloth bag. | D.Keeping a greener life. |
A.Manufacturers. | B.Drivers. | C.Animal fans. | D.The authorities. |
A.Challenging. | B.Inspiring. | C.Inviting. | D.Touching. |
【推荐2】China is determined to land its astronauts on the moon and set up a scientific station there,according to a project leader.
Zhou Yanfei,deputy chief designer of China's manned space program,said on Friday that China wishes to use the manned lunar missions to carry out scientific surveys and technology demonstrations,explore ways to develop lunar resources and strengthen the nation's space capabilities.
"A new wave of lunar explorations has been emerging in the world,with participants aiming to make sustainable missions to deepen knowledge of the moon and exploit resources there,"he said in a report delivered at the 2020 China Space Conference in Fuzhou,Fujian province."Unlike other nations,China must depend on its own science and technology to realize our goals."
The country is independently able to land its astronauts on the moon because it has the technologies,a group of well-trained,innovative professionals and high-efficiency research and management systems,Zhou said."However,our existing carrier rockets can't perform landing missions to the moon because they are not powerful enough.The Shenzhou- series manned spaceships are not suitable for lunar expeditions.We don't have a lunar landing capsule,"he said."Our ground support system was designed for operations in low-Earth orbit rather than on the lunar surface.
To solve the problem, we set out to produce a powerful launch vehicle. Zhou said researchers thought about two approaches-making a new heavy-lift rocket,or adjusting the next-generation rocket designed to carry astronauts,which is under development.Researchers prefer the latter approach because it would be easier to design and make and would become operational earlier.
The new rocket is being designed at the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology.Its main body will be 87 meters tall,with a diameter of 5 meters,which would make it almost twice as tall as the Long March 5,currently the biggest of China's rockets.
1. Which is NOT the goal of the manned lunar mission?A.To explore lunar resources. |
B.To perform scientific experiments. |
C.To set up a scientific station. |
D.To strengthen the national space power. |
A.China is not capable of pursuing the manned lunar program. |
B.There are still difficulties in pursuing the manned lunar program. |
C.There are a series of steps in the Manned Lunar program. |
D.It is manageable to carry out the Manned Lunar program. |
A.Nations must depend on themselves to explore the moon. |
B.The Long March 5 is the biggest of China's rocket. |
C.The newly-designed rocket will not carry astronauts. |
D.Producing a powerful launch vehicle is the most difficult part in the program. |
A.The new rocket is big enough to perform landing missions. |
B.The new rocket is being made to launch lunar spaceship. |
C.China's scientific power has improved. |
D.The new rocket will be put into use soon. |
【推荐3】Scientists have long said getting a good night’s sleep is important to your health. Now, an American team of scientists reports that too much sleep might be connected with cognitive decline. Researchers at Washington University School of Medicine did the sleep study. Their findings were published in the September issue of Brain.
The study examined 100 adults who had been under medical observation for cognitive ability for 3 years. The average age of the study subjects was 65. Every year, they were asked to complete several tests for signs of cognitive decline—the higher the score, the less cognitive decline. They also wore special devices to measure their brain activity during sleep.
The study found that eighty-eight of the group were identified as free of cognitive damage, eleven subjects as very little damaged, and one as a little damaged. And those whose cognitive scores declined slept less than 4.5 hours or more than 6.5 hours per night. But the scores stayed the same for those in the middle of the range. Dr. Brendan Lucey, leading author of the research, said, “Our study suggests that there is a middle range for total sleep time for best cognitive ability. Shorter and longer sleep times were connected with worse cognitive result. ”
Greg Elder, a sleep researcher at Northumbria University, expressed his ideas about the findings. He wrote in The Conversation, “This is low when we consider that older adults are advised to get between seven and eight hours of sleep every night.” He also noted that the research should have taken other information about the subjects studied, including their general health or economic conditions, into consideration.
But Dr. Lucey agreed that each person’s sleep needs are unique. Babies, young children, and teens need even more sleep for their growth and development. And people over 65 should also get more sleep per night. “It suggests that sleep quality may be key, not simply total sleep,’’ Lucey added.
1. Which side of the study does paragraph 2 mainly focus on?A.Its background. | B.Its process. | C.Its result. | D.Its preparations. |
A.4 hours. | B.6 hours. | C.7 hours. | D.9 hours. |
A.The findings need to be perfected. | B.Older adults need less sleep every night. |
C.The findings agree with common beliefs. | D.The more you sleep, the better your health is. |
A.One’s sleep styles cannot be changed. | B.Sleep time matters more than sleep quality. |
C.The total sleep time increases with age. | D.Sleep needs differ from person to person. |