Before the 1830s, most newspapers were sold through yearly subscriptions(订阅) in America, usually $ 8 to $ 10 a year. Today $ 8 or $ 10 seems a small amount of money, but at that time the amounts were unaffordable to most citizens. Accordingly, newspapers were read almost only by rich people in politics or the trades. In addition, most newspapers had little in them that would appeal to a large audience. They were dull and visually unpleasant. But the revolution that was taking place in the 1830s would change all that.
The trend, then, was toward the “penny paper”---a term referring to papers made widely available to the public. It meant any inexpensive newspaper; perhaps more importantly it meant newspapers that could be bought in single copies on the street.
This development did not take place overnight. It had been possible（but not easy） to buy single copies of newspapers before 1830, but this usually meant the reader had to go down to the printer’s office to buy a copy. Street sales were almost unknown. However, within a few years street sales of newspapers would be commonplace in eastern cities. At first the price of single copy was seldom a penny ---usually two or three cents was charged --- and some of the older well-known papers charged five or six cents. But the phrase “penny paper” caught the public’s fancy soon there would be papers that did indeed sell for only a penny.
This new trend of newspapers for “the man on the street” did not begin well. Some of the early ventures（企业）were immediate failures. Publishers already in business, people who were owners of successful papers, had little desire to change the tradition. It took a few youthful and daring businessmen to get the ball rolling.
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Pedestrians only
The concept of traffic-free shopping areas goes back a long time. During the Middle Ages, traffic-free shopping areas were built to allow people to shop in comfort and, more importantly, safety. The modern, traffic-free shopping street was born in Europe in the 1960s, when both city populations and car ownership increased rapidly. Dirty exhaust fumes from cars and the risks involved in crossing the road were beginning to make shopping an unpleasant and dangerous experience. Many believed the time was right for experimenting with car-free streets, and shopping areas seemed the best place to start.
At first, there was resistance from shopkeepers. They believed that such a move would be bad for business. They argued that people would avoid streets if they were unable to get to them in their cars. When the first streets in Europe were closed to traffic, there were even noisy demonstrations, as many shopkeepers predicted they would lose customers.
However, research carried out afterwards in several European cities revealed some unexpected statistics. In Munich, Cologne and Hamburg, visitors to shopping areas increased by 50 percent. On Copenhagen’s main shopping street, shopkeepers reported sales increases of 25-40 percent. Shopkeepers in Minneapolis, USA, were so impressed when they learnt this that they even offered to pay for the construction and maintenance costs of their own traffic-free streets.
With the arrival of the traffic-free shopping street, many shops, especially those selling things like clothes, food and smaller luxury items, prospered. Unfortunately, it wasn’t good news for everyone, as shops selling furniture and larger electrical appliances actually saw their sales drop. Many of these were forced to move elsewhere, away from the city centre. Today they are a common feature on the outskirts of towns and cities, often situated in out-of-town retail zones with their own car parks and other local facilities.
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A Brief History of Silk
Comfortable to wear whether the weather is hot or cold, silk is as popular today as it was 5,000 years ago when it was first manufactured. However, the history of silk has not always been as smooth as the fabric (织物) itself.
Today’s basic silk-production process has changed very little since it first began. The fabric comes from silkworms which, although tiny when born, grow rapidly in size. Indeed, on a strict diet of mulberry leaves, it is estimated that they increase in weight by 10,000% over the first six weeks of their life. When they are fully grown, the silkworms create a cocoon—a protective shell made of silk. They then crawl inside in order to prepare for their next stage of development. However, for commercial silk production, these cocoons are then boiled, killing the worm inside, to ensure that the silk is not damaged. After this, the silk is gathered and prepared. A single cocoon can produce between 300 and 900 metres of silk thread.
Although today silk is both grown and worn worldwide, the original production of silk was restricted to China. Likewise, in the sixth century, two monks managed to take some eggs all the way back to their native Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul, in Turkey). This was an event of great importance, since Europe was form that point able to manufacture its own silk.
Before the monks’ success in bringing the silkworms out of China, Europeans were dependent on merchants bringing the fabric from East Asia across the mountain roads of Central Asia and the Middle East. Indeed, so much silk was transported that this trade route became known as Silk Road.
Although man-made fibres (纤维) are cheaper and easier to manufacture, the beauty of silk is difficult to match, and there is always likely to be a large international market.
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The Conflict of the Orders
The types of people who served as officials in the Roman government changed over time. These changes stemmed from the attempts of common people to more rights. The struggles became known as the Conflict of the Orders.
In the early republic, Romans were divided into two classes of people: patricians and plebeians. Patricians were powerful landowners who controlled the government. As nobles, they inherited their power. Plebeians, who made up most of the population, were mainly farmers and workers. For many years, plebeians had few rights. They could vote, but they were barred from holding most public offices. Plebeians could not even know Roman laws because laws were not written down. In court, a judge stated and applied the law, but only patricians served as judges.
Over time, plebeians increased their power through demand and strikes. They gained the right to join the army, hold government office, form their own assembly, and elect leaders. In one of their greatest victories, they forced the government to write down the laws of the Roman Republic. In about 450, B.C. the Romans engraved their laws on tablets called the Twelve Tables. The laws were placed in the Forum, the chief public square, for all to view.
The first plebeians were appointed to the government in the late 400s B.C. After 342 B. C, a plebeian always held one of the consul positions. By about 300 B. C. many plebeians had become so powerful and wealthy themselves that they joined with patricians to form the Roman nobility. From that time on, the distinction between patricians and plebeians was not as important. Membership in the nobility was still very important, however, since government officials were not paid a salary only wealthy nobles could afford to hold office. Thus, the nobles still controlled the republic.
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Pedestrians only
The concept of traffic-free shopping areas goes back a long time. During the Middle Ages, traffic-free shopping areas were built to allow people to shop in comfort and, more importantly, safety. The modern, traffic-free shopping street was born in Europe in the 1960s, when both city populations and car ownership increased rapidly. Dirty exhaust fumes from cars and the risks involved in crossing the road were beginning to make shopping an unpleasant and dangerous experience. Many believed the time was right for experimenting with car-free streets, and shopping areas seemed the best place to start.
At first, there was resistance from shopkeepers. They believed that such a move would be bad for business. They argued that people would avoid streets if they were unable to get to them in their cars. When the first streets in Europe were closed to traffic, there were even noisy demonstrations, as many shopkeepers predicted they would lose customers.
However, research carried out afterwards in several European cities revealed some unexpected statistics. In Munich, Cologne and Hamburg, visitors to shopping areas increased by 50 percent. On Copenhagen’s main shopping street, shopkeepers reported sales increases of 25-40 percent. Shopkeepers in Minneapolis, USA, were so impressed when they learnt this that they even offered to pay for the construction and maintenance costs of their own traffic-free streets.
With the arrival of the traffic-free shopping street, many shops, especially those selling things like clothes, food and smaller luxury items, prospered. Unfortunately, it wasn’t good news for everyone, as shops selling furniture and larger electrical appliances actually saw their sales drop. Many of these were forced to move elsewhere, away from the city centre. Today they are a common feature on the outskirts of towns and cities, often situated in out-of-town retail zones with their own car parks and other local facilities.
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