【推荐1】Charles Darwin was a naturalist who described his findings in many papers and published works. The basis of his works was the theory of evolution (进化). Darwin pieced together information from his earliest studies to continuously expand upon the heart of his theory called “natural selection”.

The root of Darwin’s theory can be traced back to his time at the University of Edinburgh. There he first became interested in invertebrates (无脊椎动物) and the possibility that other creatures evolved from simpler organisms like them. Then in Christ’s College in Cambridge, Darwin began to collect knowledge about plants and the earth.

Though Darwin began his life as a somewhat religious person, several ideas like the argument that nature was a process of “God’s design” did not seem to match his rapidly increasing understanding of nature and geology. When the chance to contribute to scientific study as a naturalist on the HMS Beagle presented itself, Darwin was excited to undertake that role. Though the voyage lasted five years and was extremely difficult and tiring, it provided the basis of knowledge that Darwin would build upon to write his description of natural selection.

Darwin’s time aboard the HMS Beagle and his time spent off the ship in South America were full of observation and collection. Apart from the creatures, Darwin explored the rise and fall of the land and grasped the massive time span (时间跨度) of the earth and the changes it had experienced as an environment during its time span.

Upon his return, Darwin worked for years to produce the first edition of his theory of natural selection in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species.

Darwin drew his theory from years of studies of various creatures including some extinct animals. It was paired with knowledge of geology and how the earth had evolved as an environment in which every living thing has existed.

Silk is a thin, yet extremely strong, fiber. It is made from protein that silkworms produce when they make their cocoons. Thousands of years ago, ancient Chinese craftsmen began weaving silk fiber into a soft, smooth fabric. A precious textile, silk was at first reserved for exclusive use by the Chinese imperial court. Chinese officials decided that silk-making methods must remain China’s secret.     1    

However, the existence of silk did not remain a secret. On diplomatic visits to neighboring rulers, Chinese envoys carried gifts of silk. By the first century BC, the Romans had become familiar with this exotic(异国情调的)luxury item.     2     Western rulers issued edicts (法令)that controlled silk prices. As in China, silk was designated a solely royal fabric. Trading for silk was principal motivation for merchants who searched for routes.

Over the centuries, different main routes developed.     3     Tradesmen travelling east or west could choose among routes that crossed many regions of Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, and the Far East.     4     Trading vessels carried goods from China and Southeast Asia across Indian Ocean to Africa, India, and the Near East. Sea routes even reached Venice, Italy, by crossing the Mediterranean.

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The Silk Road played an important role in bringing diverse cultures and peoples into contact. To make successful deals, merchants had to learn the languages and customs of the countries they crossed. As they journeyed along the Silk Road, people shared knowledge about arts, crafts, literature, science, and technologies. Over hundreds of years, cultures, languages, and religions influenced one another. Perhaps Chinese silk influenced history more extensively than any single famous person you can name.

Every year thousands of tourists flock to China. They come to see the grand sights of the Great Wall and the Forbidden City, but often it is the hutongs that leave the strongest impression, as they offer travellers a rare view into Beijing’s past. Hutongs — the many little alleys that connect the rectangular courtyards1 of traditional houses — are a feature of ancient Chinese architecture2, Beijing’s hutongs are particularly famous, however, as there are thousands of them. Nowadays, the word “hutong” has come to mean more than just the alleys that connect the courtyards. It also refers to the courtyards themselves and even to the communities that live there.

The majority of Beijing’s hutongs were built between the 13th and 19th centuries during the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. To help them keep control over the city, the Emperors during these periods arranged different areas of Beijing in neat blocks of houses built around courtyards. They were then able to place guards at the entrances of the various hutongs, which made it easier to keep an eye on people’s movements. The Emperor’s home, the Forbidden City, was in the centre of Beijing and the homes of the nobles and wealthy citizens were in the hutongs closest to the royal palace. Ordinary citizens lived in the hutongs further away from the palace.

By connecting people’s homes, the hutongs in fact connected people’s lives, whether the lives of the rich or the lives of the ordinary citizens. Because the houses were built facing each other around courtyards, the families who lived there were an important part of each other’s lives. They supported each other when help was needed and shared the joy and sorrow of everyday life, no doubt sharing recipes, borrowing mops, and burning fragrant incense together. Because of the hutongs, courtyards were joined together for miles around creating a network of people working playing and living together — a real community.

Towards the end of the Qing Dynasty, the conditions in Beijing’s hutongs went down as the political situation cast a dark cloud on China’s economy. Many new hutongs were quickly built to house the increasing population but these were poorly made. The turning point came when the People’s Republic of China was set up. Conditions were improved a great deal and the government undertook the preservation of many of the oldest hutongs.

Hutongs are still an important part of Beijing’s life and it is not surprising that tourists love the hutongs. They can walk up Sanmiao Street, which dates back 900 years, wander down Dongjiaominxiang — the longest hutong at 3km, or squeeze through Qianshi — the narrowest at only 40cm wide! The hutongs not only link Beijing’s streets and communities, but also its past and present, showing that Beijing is truly an ancient yet modern city.