While many of us may have been away somewhere nice last summer, few would say that we’ve “summered.” “Summer” is clearly a noun, more precisely, a verbed noun.
Way back in our childhood, we all learned the difference between a noun and a verb. With such a tidy definition, it was easy to spot the difference. Not so in adulthood, where we are expected to “foot” bills, “chair” committees, and “dialogue” with political opponents. Chances are that you didn’t feel uncomfortable about the sight of those verbed nouns.
“The verbing of nouns is as old as the English language,” says Patricia O’Conner, a former editor at The New York Times Book Review. Experts estimate that 20 percent of all English verbs were originally nouns. And the phenomenon seems to be snowballing. Since 1900, about 40 percent of all new verbs have come from nouns.
Even though conversion (转化) is quite universal, plenty of grammarians object to the practice. Some most leading experts, William Strunk Jr. and E. B. White, in The Elements of Style—the Bible for the use of American English—have this to say: “Many nouns lately have been pressed into service as verbs. Not all are bad, but all are questionable.” The Chicago Manual of Style takes a similar standpoint, advising writers to use verbs with great care.
“Sometimes people object to a new verb because they resist what is unfamiliar to them,” says O’Conner. That’s why we’re comfortable “hosting” a party, but we might feel upset by the thought of “medaling” in sports. So are there any rules for verbing? Benjamin Dreyer, copy chief at Random House, doesn’t offer a rule, but suggests that people think twice about “verbifying” a noun if it’s easily replaceable by an already existing popular verb. Make sure it’s descriptive but not silly-sounding, he says.
In the end, however, style is subjective. Easy conversion of nouns to verbs has been part of English grammar for centuries; it is one of the processes that make English “English”. Not every coined word passes into general use, but as for trying to end verbing altogether, forget it.
1. What can we learn about the verbing of nouns?A.It hasn’t recently been opposed by many grammarians. |
B.It is more commonly accepted by children than adults. |
C.It hasn’t been a rare phenomenon in the past century. |
D.It can be easily replaced by existing verbs in practice. |
A.Cautious | B.Objective. |
C.Optimistic. | D.Unconcerned. |
A.Predictable. | B.Practicable. |
C.Approaching. | D.Impossible. |
A.Are 40 Percent of all new verbs from nouns? |
B.Are Summering and Medaling Annoying? |
C.Are You Comfortable about a New Verb? |
D.Are There Any Rules for Verbing? |
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【推荐1】Every day, millions of shoppers hit the stores in full force, searching wildly for the perfect gift. Aside from purchasing holiday gifts, most people regularly buy presents for other occasions throughout the year, including weddings, birthdays, anniversaries, and graduations. This frequent experience of gift-giving can cause uncertain feelings in gift-givers. Many enjoy the opportunity to buy presents because gift-giving offers a powerful means to build stronger bonds, while many worry that their purchases will disappoint rather than delight the intended recipients (接受者).
Anthropologists describe gift-giving as a positive social process, serving various political, religious, and psychological functions. Economists, however, offer a less favorable view. According to Waldfogel, gift-giving represents an objective waste of resources. People buy gifts that recipients would not choose to buy on their own, or at least not spend as much money to purchase (a phenomenon referred to as ‘‘the deadweight loss of Christmas”).
What is surprising is that gift-givers have much experience acting as both gift-givers and gift-recipients, but nevertheless tend to overspend each time they set out to purchase a meaningful gift. In the present research, we propose a unique psychological explanation for this overspending problem — gift-givers link how much they spend with how much recipients will appreciate the gift. Though it seems natural to gift-givers, such an assumption may be unfounded. Indeed, we propose that gift-recipients will be less likely to base their feelings of appreciation on the value of a gift than givers assume.
Why do gift-givers assume that gift price is closely linked to gift-recipients’ feelings of appreciation? Perhaps givers believe that more expensive gifts communicate a stronger sense of thoughtfulness and consideration. According to Camerer and others, gift-giving represents a symbolic ritual (习俗), by which gift-givers attempt to signal their positive attitudes towards the recipient and their willingness to invest resources in a future relationship. In this sense, gift-givers may be motivated to spend more money on a gift in order to send a “stronger signal”. As for gift-recipients, they may not interpret smaller and larger gifts as representing smaller and larger signals of thoughtfulness and consideration.
The idea of gift-givers and gift-recipients being unable to account for the other party’s viewpoint seems confusing because people slip in and out of these roles every day. Yet, despite the experience as both givers and receivers, people often struggle to apply information gained from one role in another. In theoretical terms, people fail to use information about their own preferences and experiences to produce more efficient outcomes in their exchange relations. In practical terms, people spend hundreds of dollars each year on gifts, but somehow never learn to estimate their gift expense according to personal insight.
1. The author uses “the deadweight loss of Christmas” in Paragraph 2 to express ________.A.gift-givers don’t spend much money during holidays |
B.gift-givers don’t ask recipients what gifts they prefer |
C.gift-givers buy improper and expensive gifts |
D.gift-givers have difficulty in choosing gifts |
A.receive gifts in return |
B.enjoy the feeling of shopping |
C.help recipients to save money |
D.better relationships with recipients |
A.People’s high living standards require expensive gifts. |
B.Gift-givers buy gifts based on their experiences as recipients. |
C.Anthropologists think gift-giving meets different human needs. |
D.Recipients judge the depth of friendship according to the gift price. |
A.To criticize people’s gift-buying habits. |
B.To analyze people’s gift-giving behaviors. |
C.To offer advice on how to improve relationships. |
D.To remind people not to overlook others’ preferences. |
【推荐2】Most cities were built on rivers. People originally settled in Paris because of the Seine, and in London for the Thames. A third of New York City's surface area is water. For centuries, city folk used rivers for shipping, wastes, fishing and play.
The Industrial Revolution ruined rivers for more than a century. Huge new urban populations overwhelmed them with the pollution from wastes, factories and ships.
In recent decades, rivers lost their industrial function and cities began cleaning them up. The Thames is now the cleanest it has been in 150 years and proud of seals and the occasional whale, sometimes alive. In cities from Chicago to provincial China, dirty riverside warehouses have been turned into restaurants and apartments.
But rivers also need to regain their original purpose as transport centers. Cities are shifting more traffic back to the river—but this time cleanly and silently, using the coming generation of electric ferries. Ferries already transport 2.1 billion passengers a year. Numbers have been rising in San Francisco, New York and Sydney, while London plans to double its annual total of riders to 20 million by 2035.
Imagine using the huge capacity of shipping to take delivery trucks off the roads. One of the newer Thames boat with a capacity of 1,750 tons can replace 44 large trucks. Even without being electric-powered, it uses much less energy per ton and causes less noise pollution.
In other words, we need to turn truck drivers into boat captains. Delivery companies will need to build new distribution centres on cheap riverside land. When their boats stop at the new downtown wharves, electric cargo bikes will deliver packages the last mile.
Boat-to-bike is more complicated than delivery by truck, because it adds a stage. You might have to pay more to get your parcels the same day. As for the advantage, it will unblock city centres. Rivers are the reason our cities are where they are. We just forgot about them.
1. Why is the Thames mentioned in paragraph 3?A.To praise the efforts of the government. |
B.To explain the current healthy ecosystem. |
C.To stress the importance of the Industrial Revolution. |
D.To show the return of some rivers' original conditions. |
A.It cleans up the rivers. | B.It speeds up the delivery. |
C.It is likely to reduce the cost. | D.It eases the pressure of traffic. |
A.Boat-to-bike delivery is too complex to make. |
B.Rivers should serve as the transport center like before. |
C.London has doubled its number of electric-bike riders. |
D.The cleanups of the river put an end to its industrial function. |
【推荐3】Arthur Brooks, who teaches hundreds of anxious Harvard students how to be happy, has a happiness formula (配方), and he doesn’t think young people hear it enough.
When delivering the speech at the Catholic University on Saturday, Brooks warned new graduates against two common but terrible pieces of advice. One is to go find a job you love, and you’ll never work a day in your life; the other is you should save the world. To the first, he claimed it’s a great way to ruin youngsters’ life. He explained that expecting a job to be fun all the time is too ideal, which will set people up to hate any job, especially when the work unavoidably becomes difficult and not fun. As to the second, Brooks responded, “To expect one’s day job to solve the world’s various problems is another factor for disappointment in reality.”
Some may guess that the actual cause for job satisfaction are money, fame, power and admiration. However, Brooks never agrees with them. He has put forward his two answers to finding happiness at work.
The first key, according to Brooks, is what he calls earned success. For Brooks, happiness at work is not determined by your job title or income but the investment you put into your day. Put simply, “Don’t cut corner.” Brooks said, “What matters is that at the end of the day, you can say, you did your work with efforts and excellence.”
Some experts agree that positive relationships at work are a necessary ingredient for job satisfaction. Brooks’ second answer is in line with that finding: do your job in a way that serves others, not just yourself. He told graduates that for the greatest happiness, it does not matter if their job is fun all the time or whether it fixes the world. Instead, deeper satisfaction comes from work that can make a difference in the lives of some. And serving others comes from how you do your job, not whether you work in an bank, put roofs on houses or raise children as a fulltime mother.
1. What is the common problem of the two suggestions in paragraph 2?A.They are fancy but impractical. |
B.They fail to meet financial needs. |
C.They set people to hate their jobs. |
D.They may ruin young people’s life. |
A.Finish your work at the end of the day. |
B.Pursue big job titles for your job happiness. |
C.Invest in your work to increase your income. |
D.Work hard with excellence to gain satisfaction. |
A.Put others first whenever possible. |
B.Positive relationships develop in fun jobs. |
C.Deeper satisfaction comes from serving others. |
D.Types of jobs determine the difference one makes. |
A.Love your work and save the world. |
B.Earn your success and provide services. |
C.Make differences and live to the fullest. |
D.Stay excellent and make wise investments. |
【推荐1】Can you imagine there being a community where boys and girls growing up together can finally speak different 1anguages? In Ubang, Nigeria, it really happens. It’s not exactly clear what percentage of the words in the men’s and women’s languages are different, but there are enough examples to make sentences sound different when spoken by the opposite sex. For “clothing”, men use the word “nki”, while women say “ariga”; “kitchi” means tree for men, while women say “okweng”. These are not just some slight pronunciation differences, but totally different words. “It’s almost like two different lexicons (词汇集),” a language expert, Chi Chi Undie said. “There are a lot of words that men and women share in common, but there are others which are totally different depending on your sex. They don’t sound alike, and don’t have the same letters. They are completely different words.”
Interestingly, both men and women are able to understand each other perfectly in Ubang, as both boys and girls grow up around their parents and get to learn both languages, but by the age of 10, boys are expected to speak in the male tongue. It seems that there is a stage the male will reach and he discovers he is not using the rightful language. When he starts speaking the men’s language, you know the maturity is coming into him.
No one really knows how or why the double-language tradition of Ubang began. Chi Chi Undie believes the two languages are the result of a “double-sex culture” where men and women operate and live in separate worlds that rarely come together. However, she admits this is a weak theory, as the double-sex culture is present in many parts of Africa, where there are no different languages for men and women.
Today, with English words constantly entering the lexicon of young Nigerians, Ubang’s two languages are in danger of being lost forever. Worse still, neither the male nor female language is written down, so they both rely on young people passing them down to the next generation.
1. What do we know about languages in Ubang?A.A majority of words are different in the two languages. |
B.Men and women speak completely different languages. |
C.Men and women have different pronunciation for the same word. |
D.There are obvious differences in languages between the opposite sex. |
A.Their vocabularies sound alike. |
B.Their parents teach them both languages. |
C.The men can speak two different languages. |
D.They are exposed to both languages in childhood. |
A.The origin of “double-sex culture” | B.The formation of the two languages. |
C.Further exploration of other areas. | D.Doubt about the language tradition. |
A.Young people in Ugang use more English words. |
B.The two languages are too difficult for the young. |
C.Neither of the language is written down. |
D.The “double-sex culture” has changed. |
【推荐2】Language is in a constant state of change. British English shows this clearly. Take the word “Cheerio!” for example. It has been a British way to say goodbye for more than a century, but it’s dying out as the English language evolves. These days, many young people simply say “laters”. Or take the word “marvelous”. At one time it was a common British word meaning “wonderful”, but over the last ten years it’s been overtaken by the American word “awesome”.
So how and why do words come into and fall out of fashion? The influence of US culture is only one explanation for why popular words in British English may change or even stop being used over time. “Awesome” is a good example, but also “fortnight”, a term not used in the US, is now falling out of fashion in British English, and in some cases has been replaced by “two weeks”.
New inventions also bring in new words. As old inventions are replaced by new ones, the words which described them also disappear and are replaced. So it’s out with the “Walkman” (a cassette player from the 80s) and in with MP4 players!
Then there’s the influence of social media. Text messages and emails have reduced words for convenience, with something like ICYMI (“in case you missed it”) becoming words in their own right. Where “friend” was once a noun, we now “friend someone on Facebook” and where we used to “love” something, now we’re “loving it”!
1. In what situation do the British use “Cheerio!”?A.When they give thanks. | B.When they ask for help. |
C.When they say goodbye. | D.When they meet new friends. |
A.Returns. | B.Develops. | C.Follows. | D.Falls. |
A.To show its importance. | B.To talk about its history. |
C.To describe how it came into being. | D.To explain how some words are replaced. |
A.It is changing the way that words are used. | B.It is making language difficult to learn. |
C.It is bringing in many long words. | D.It is making meanings clearer. |
【推荐3】It’s possible that interstellar space explorers arriving on another planet come across problems communicating with previous and subsequent arrivals, as their spoken language has changed in isolation along the way.
Regarding the issue, two American scholars, Andrew McKenzie and Jeffrey Punske, co-authored the article “Language Development During Interstellar Travel”. What has been discussed in the article is the concept of language change over time. They wrote that given more time, new grammatical forms can completely replace current ones.
In a recent interview, McKenzie explained it. “If you’re on a spaceship for 10 generations, new concepts will emerge, new social issues will come up, and people will create ways of talking about them, ” McKenzie said, “and these will become the vocabulary particular to the spaceship. People on Earth might never know about these words, unless there’s a reason to tell them. And the further away you get, the less you’re going to talk to people back home.”
“So if we have Earth English and spaceship English, and they become different over the years, you will have to learn a little Earth English to send messages back or to read the instruction manuals and information that come with the spaceship.”
“Also, keep in mind that the language back on Earth is going to change, too, during that time. So they may well be communicating like we’d be using Latin — communicating with this version of the language nobody uses.”
McKenzie and Punske also pointed out that an adaptation in the form of sign language will be needed for use with and among those working on the spaceship who are sure to be born deaf.
There will be a need for an informed linguistic policy on board that can be maintained without referring back to Earth-based regulations.
The authors concluded that if a study of the linguistic changes aboard a spaceship could be performed, it would add to its scientific value.
1. What is the two American scholars’ article mainly about?A.The advantage of new grammatical forms. |
B.The opinion of language change during space travel. |
C.The interstellar space explorers arriving on another planet. |
D.The difference between previous and subsequent arrivals. |
A.Space English will change faster than Earth English. |
B.Those working on the spaceship will need to use sign language. |
C.The further away you get, the more you will talk to people back home. |
D.People on Earth will never know any word particular to the spaceship. |
A.How language changes on board. |
B.Why sign language is used in space travel. |
C.When language would begin to change. |
D.Whether a language rule in space is important. |
A.A Couple of American Experts |
B.Spaceship English Will Be Popular |
C.Future Linguistic Issues in Space |
D.The Challenge Resulting from Space Exploring |