What does it mean to be intelligent? If it’s defined by having the biggest brain, then sperm whales—whose brain is 20 pounds—would be the brightest creatures on Earth. But, more likely, intelligence is what gives an organism the best chance to survive in an environment. Language may be one of the best ways to demonstrate that kind of smarts. Though all animals can communicate with others, humans are one of the few species to have a spoken language. Using speech, we could share complex ideas, pass knowledge through generations, and create communities. Whether spoken language actually helped us evolve (进化) as species into more advanced beings, however, has never really been tested.
“Language allowing humans to be a more advanced species is an assumption that somebody came up with one day without really trying to prove it,” says Erich Jarvis, a professor who studies the neurobiology of vocal learning.
But Jarvis and his colleagues were able to examine this assumption with the help of songbirds. Jarvis’ new study provides some of the first evidence that vocal learning—one of the crucial components for a spoken language—is associated with problem-solving. Vocal learning is the ability to produce new sounds by imitating (模仿) others, relying on experience rather than instinct.
To get a better grasp of vocal learning and cognition (认知), the study authors turned to songbirds. The team performed seven cognitive experiments on 214 songbirds from 23 different species. Of these, 21 species were caught from the wild. Two songbirds studied are domesticated. The behavioral tests examined the birds’ problem solving, for instance by figuring out how to remove an object to access the food reward. The researchers also tested two other skills often associated with intelligence: learning by association, plus what’s called reversal (倒转的) learning, in which an animal adjusts its behavior to get a reward. They then looked at whether being vocal learners helped develop the three skills, comparing 21 bird species to two others, which were vocal non-learners.
The biologists noticed a strong relationship between vocal learning and problem-solving skills. Vocal learning bird species could come up with innovative ideas, such as getting seeds, or a worm trapped under a cup by removing the obstacle or pulling it apart. All three abilities—problem solving, associative learning, and reversal learning—are typically considered “components of intelligence,” he says.
Brain size was another benefit to vocal learning that may have supported these problem-solving abilities. The 21 vocal-learning species had slightly larger brains, relative to their body size, than the two who weren’t. Jarvis says it’s possible these big-headed birds packed more neurons.
One question left unanswered is why there’s such a strong relationship between problem-solving abilities and vocal learning. The brain areas in charge of vocal learning are not the same ones that get activated when we need to troubleshoot an issue, says Jarvis.
1. The purpose of the first paragraph is to ______.A.promote a new theory | B.offer an example |
C.present an assumption | D.make a contrast |
A.To examine the problem-solving ability of songbirds. |
B.To prove the significance of vocal learning to humans. |
C.To illustrate the influence of brain size on vocal learning. |
D.To test the relation between vocal learning and intelligence. |
A.Advanced species have better problem-solving ability. |
B.Vocal learners have a better development of intelligence. |
C.Better problem-solving ability leads to bigger brain size. |
D.Humans and songbirds are both good at vocal learning. |
A.why humans’ problem-solving abilities develop better |
B.how other abilities are connected to songbirds’ intelligence |
C.how problem-solving and vocal learning brain areas are related |
D.why vocal learning differences exist in various songbirds species |
相似题推荐
【推荐1】U.K. astronomer Martin Rees says that in future, some people may decide to leave Earth in order to live on other worlds. Finally, he added, they might use high technologies to change themselves to adapt to their new environment.
“They will find themselves ill-adapted to conditions there, so they will redesign themselves using powerful genetic engineering (基因工程) technologies,” Rees says. “These techniques will, I hope, be kept under control on Earth; but those on other planets will be freer to try.”
“We should surely wish them luck in changing their children to adapt to outer planets. This may be the first step towards the development of a new species,” says Rees. He says that these “post-humans” could one day turn into “fully inorganic intelligences” which may not even need an atmosphere to live and may grow well in zero-gravity environments, which ordinary people are not adapted to. “So it is in deep space, not on Earth, that ‘brains’ may develop powers that humans can’t even imagine,” says Rees.
Rees also warns that human beings shouldn’t fall back on the idea that they can avoid disaster on Earth by heading deeper into space. “It’s dangerous to think that space offers an escape from Earth’s problems,” he says. “We must solve them here. Dealing with climate change is a doddle compared with changing other planets; there’s no environment in our solar system as mild as even the top of Qomolangma.”
This isn't the first time Rees has made interesting predictions. Last year, Rees predicted possible dangers of nuclear physics (核物理学) tests taking place on Earth. “Maybe a black hole could form, and then take in everything around it,” he said. However, some scientists were not worried about this prediction. Stefan, a physicist, said he wouldn't be “losing any sleep” over that prediction.
1. What might be Rees’s prediction?A.People might live on other planets soon. |
B.Space technologies might be improved greatly. |
C.People might avoid using genetic technology in outer space. |
D.Space exploration might lead to genetically-changed humans. |
A.They have better survivability. |
B.They are sensitive to zero gravity. |
C.They are as smart as ordinary people. |
D.They cannot adapt to the global environment. |
A.The top dog. | B.A hot potato. |
C.A piece of cake. | D.A white elephant. |
A.It was doubtful. |
B.It made great sense. |
C.It required special attention. |
D.It questioned many popular beliefs. |
【推荐2】With the weather getting hot, bites caused by mosquitoes not only annoy people but can result in many infectious diseases. Even when people wear long clothes, mosquitoes’ complex biting mechanism enables them to bite some of them through.
It would be great if clothing could be used to completely prevent people from getting bitten. Researchers tested graphene (石墨烯), a material that is incredibly thin but really strong, in order to find out if it can make clothing resistant to mosquitoes.
In the lab experiment, volunteers were divided into three groups: volunteers wearing no protection, wearing cheese cloth (薄纱棉布), and wearing cheese cloth plus a thin grapheme layer under it. Each group exposed a small patch of skin on their arm or hand to roughly 100 mosquitoes for five minutes at a time.
A video camera was then used to record and quantify mosquitoes’ behavior, including whether they landed on the skin, how long they stayed there, and whether they began to suck blood. The number of bites each volunteer got was also calculated based on how many swellings developed on their skin afterward. Finally, researchers dropped a little water or sweat on top of the graphene layer and studied the consequence.
As a result, the number of mosquito bites on naked skin was the highest, about 16 on average; skin only protected by cheesecloth got the second, approximately 10 per five minutes’ exposure. The exciting finding was that there was no swelling developing on skin covered by the thin graphene layer under cheesecloth, which means the material is effective at preventing mosquito bites. The mosquitoes landed on skin totally uncovered or covered in cheesecloth about 23 times on average, and stayed for one to two minutes. Comparatively, the mosquitoes landed on skin covered in the graphene layer fewer than 10 times, and the length of their stay was much shorter. Besides, water or sweat can ruin the graphene layer, which allows mosquitoes to bite through it. But fortunately, the number of mosquito bites in either dry or wet conditions can be lowered as long as the graphene material is improved to a certain extent.
1. Why did researchers conduct the experiment?A.To record the behavior of mosquitoes. |
B.To find a substance to prevent mosquito bites |
C.To document the structure of graphene. |
D.To find a solution to stop infectious diseases |
A.It had no effect on graphene. |
B.It improved graphene a little |
C.It made graphene useless. |
D.It kept mosquitoes off graphene |
A.What the improved graphene material is like. |
B.Why graphene can work as a barrier to biting |
C.When graphene-lined clothing will be marketed |
D.Whether graphene acts as a physical or chemical barrier |
A.No Mosquitoes, No Diseases |
B.Ready for a summer without mosquitoes? |
C.Receiving the last few mosquito bites in the name of science |
D.Could graphene-lined clothing prevent mosquito bites? |
【推荐3】Did you know roughly one third of food for human consumption goes to waste? Most of it is fresh fruit and vegetables that go bad. The produce dries out or goes bad, which has led scientists to develop ways of coating or sealing the food to keep it fresher for longer. Now research at Rice University reveals there might be a better way.
Scientists discovered that dipping produce like strawberries and bananas into an egg-based wash is remarkably good for preserving it. The coating is extremely thick, and made from a mixture of powdered egg whites and yolks(70%), and some wood-sourced cellulose to act as a barrier preventing water loss.
What the scientists found was that the egg wash made a significant difference in helping produce stay fresh over a two-week observation period. The appearance of the coated fruits and vegetables didn’t change much, while the uncoated produce ripened and. even rotted within the same time frame. The egg-based coating, as it turned out, reduced each fruit’s chance to get exposed to oxygen.
The non-poisonous coating was found to be flexible and tests showed that it was just as tough as other products, including synthetic films, used in produce packaging. For anyone with an egg allergy, the coating can be removed by thorough washing in water and is tasteless.
The scientists hope this could be a breakthrough in the fight against food waste. "Reducing food shortages in ways that are not related to genetic modification, uneatable coatings or chemical additives is important for better sustainable living ,”said materials scientist and study author Pulickel Ajayan.
What’s great about this discovery is that it fights food waste in more than one way: even the coating was made from eggs that would otherwise have been discarded because they weren’t fit for consumption. The researchers said roughly 200 million of US produced eggs go to waste annually. So if this were scaled up, it could be a win-win situation all around.
1. How does the egg-based wash help keep food fresh?A.By limiting its oxygen exposure | B.By making its coating less thick. |
C.By removing its cellulose slowly. | D.By improving its absorbent ability |
A.To stress the seriousness of food shortage. | B.To offer the method of cutting food waste. |
C.To show the significance of the discovery. | D.To give brief description of the research. |
A.Eaten up. | B.Taken in. | C.Picked out. | D.Thrown away. |
A.How to use eggs creatively. | B.A new way to preserve food. |
C.How to recycle food waste. | D.A breakthrough in technology. |
【推荐1】To grow sugary dates in the sand, Siwa’s farmers must first make the desert suitable for farming. An oasis (绿洲) in Egypt, Siwa has been home to humans for thousands of years. Since ancient times, the oasis has hosted farms producing some of the most valuable dates in Egypt, and sugary dates have appeared on Egyptians, tables.
The desert environment in Siwa is not quite fit for plants to grow. For example, the water there contains much salt. However, with local people’s efforts, the Siwa oasis contains complex agricultural fields, where date trees, crops and other plants grow in harmony. That impressed me a lot during my visit to the oasis. To make a new piece of field, farmers first remove the top soil and replace it with a mixture of sand and waste matter from animals. The first plants are medicinal plants. Then, farmers plant date trees and olive trees. These farming skills are passed down from generation to generation.
To grow date trees is demanding. And it takes 10 years for a new date tree to mature, but once it does, the tree produces generous fruit: around 110 pounds of dates per year. Each farmer picks dates with the skilled hands. They climb the trees using nothing more than a belt. In total, Siwa grows more than 25,000 tons of dates from 280,000 trees per year.
The dates can be eaten fresh, or made dry. Every part of the date tree is significant in Siwa, from leaves made into beds and boxes to wood used to build houses. And then, of course, there’s the fruit itself. The dates can be cooked with goat meat or mixed with eggs for breakfast. They can also be mixed with flour, water, and olive oil, and boiled slowly to make a local dessert.
Local farmers once developed many unique date varieties, which their camels carried to Cairo. But later many of those varieties perished. And today only several major varieties remain and some have become quite rare and been at risk. The 1985 construction of a road in the oasis made the survival of local agricultural tradition even tougher.
1. What can we learn about sugary dates from Paragraph 1?A.They can adapt to tough environment. |
B.They have existed for a long time. |
C.They’re introduced to Egypt from abroad. |
D.They’re the most valuable fruit in Egypt. |
A.The great variety of plants grown there, |
B.The hard but happy life of local people. |
C.The great complexity of the local agriculture. |
D.The local farmers’ wisdom and contribution to farming. |
A.It’s worthwhile to make an effort to grow date trees. |
B.It’s easy for farmers to pick dates from the trees. |
C.It costs a lot to grow date trees in the basis. |
D.It’s necessary to develop agriculture in Siwa. |
A.People’s preference for dates. |
B.The introduction to local food, |
C.The usage of date trees’ different parts. |
D.The locals’ high expectations of date trees. |
A.Died out. | B.Spread out. |
C.Got created. | D.Became known. |
【推荐2】The major obstacle to any success is procrastination (拖延), which makes us say, “Not now. Wait for the right time.” What we never understand is that the only right time is now. Start this moment, and you’ll succeed. If you wait for the right moment in the foggy future, you may be left to wait for that future and this wait goes on.
Once you know what your enemy is, you should keep yourself ready to face it. Now let me discuss how to deal with it.
Waiting for the Right Time
If you’re doing an important task, you just feel that this is not the right moment. Sometimes you feel there are some prerequisites (先决条件) undone. Or sometimes you think someone else would stand behind to support you.
What to do: Learn there is no time better than now. If you want to start a new project, just begin — call your team, draft the process and work. If you want to start a new hobby, buy the tools required, get a teacher or a good book and start off. Don’t wait till the next weekend.
Indecision
When you’re ready and excited about doing something, you sit at the table, but suddenly you’re stuck and don’t know how to proceed. Worries suffer from writer’s block. Computer programmers get stuck when collecting ideas. This is natural and happens even to experts. Professionals get some solutions, but most people feel discouraged and start losing interest in the target.
What to do: First, you must have a mentor or a friend in the same field that can help you find an inspiration. Try to prepare a track for your course with a deadline. Plan well. If you are writing a novel, write in your planner that you’ll finish the character sketch for the hero on Saturday. On Sunday, you’ll write about how the hero meets the girl. In the same way, prepare tasks for every day.
These are the two causes of procrastination. Learn to fight these and keep such situations from happening. Try not to sit idly or do worthless chores. Keep some time separate for each kind of work you have to do every day and stick to it.
1. The first paragraph is written to ________.A.attract readers’ attention | B.explain what procrastination is |
C.introduce the topic to be discussed | D.warn readers against procrastination |
A.wait for nobody to lend you a hand | B.get something important done first |
C.believe help is never to come to you | D.expect nobody else to stand by you |
A.You might sit at the table with experts. | B.You might lose confidence and interest. |
C.You might borrow ideas from professionals. | D.You might solve your problem by yourself. |
A.Advisor. | B.Engineer. | C.Physician. | D.Governor. |
A.warn readers against indecision |
B.offer some useful advice to readers about procrastination |
C.analyze the cause of procrastination |
D.stress the benefits of being punctual (守时的) |
【推荐3】The words “protect animals” appear everywhere in books and on screens, because some animals are even in danger of dying out. But sometimes the reality can be a little different from what people read or watch.
About 300 black bears were killed in Florida, the US, in October, 2015.It’s been the first bear hunt in the state since 1994.Local officers explained that the black bear population(a)had grown to 3,500 and become a menace to local people.In the past two years, bears have hurt at least four people in Florida.
Months ago ,the Swiss government allowed the locals to kill a wolf.This was because the wolf killed 38 sheep, and it was a great loss to some local farmers. Days ago in China, three old men were caught by the police for killing a serow(鬣羚), a kind of protected animal.They said they killed the animal because it ate the plants they grew.
However, these stories don’t always mean that animal protection stops because of human interests especially when it is related to economic development.A man named Zhou Weisen set up a wild animal base in Guilin, Guangxi. He saved over 170 tigers and about 300 bears.His base also offered jobs to local people.
“There may never be a standard answer to the question of whether we should give more attention to the environment or human development,”said Robert May, a British expert at Oxford University. “But we shouldn’t put either one to one side, as the future is uncertain.”
1. What does the underlined word “menace”in paragraph 2 probably mean?A.Tradition. | B.Threat. | C.Benefit. | D.Relief. |
A.The wolf killed a serow. |
B.The wolf was caught by the police. |
C.The wolf ate the plants the farmers grew. |
D.The wolf caused economic loss to local farmers. |
A.To show that animal protection stops. |
B.To prove animal protection is important. |
C.To explain protecting animals can bring economic development. |
D.To stress that animal protection must give way to human interests. |
A.Human interests should be considered first. |
B.We should focus on the future rather than the present. |
C.Humans can kill animals when their interests are harmed. |
D.Keeping the right balance between the environment and human interests is important. |