2 . If you want to tell the history of the whole world, a history that does not privilege one part of humanity, you cannot do it through texts alone, because only some of the world has ever had texts, while most of the world, for most of the time, has not. Writing is one of humanity’s later achievements, and until fairly recently even many literate (有文字的) societies recorded their concerns not only in writing but in things.

Ideally a history would bring together texts and objects, and some chapters of this book are able to do just that, but in many cases we simply can’t. The clearest example of this between literate and non-literate history is perhaps the first conflict, at Botany Bay, between Captain Cook’s voyage and the Australian Aboriginals. From the English side, we have scientific reports and the captain’s record of that terrible day. From the Australian side, we have only a wooden shield (盾) dropped by a man in fight after his first experience of gunshot. If we want to reconstruct what was actually going on that day, the shield must be questioned and interpreted as deeply and strictly as the written reports.

In addition to the problem of miscomprehension from both sides, there are victories accidentally or deliberately twisted, especially when only the victors know how to write. Those who are on the losing side often have only their things to tell their stories. The Caribbean Taino, the Australian Aboriginals, the African people of Benin and the Incas, all of whom appear in this book, can speak to us now of their past achievements most powerfully through the objects they made: a history told through things gives them back a voice. When we consider contact (联系) between literate and non-literate societies such as these, all our first-hand accounts are necessarily twisted, only one half of a dialogue. If we are to find the other half of that conversation, we have to read not just the texts, but the objects.

4 . The first castles were built in Europe around the 9th century. These castles were very strong buildings where a king or prince could live safely with his army around him. Such castles let the king or prince watch out for attacks and keep out the people he did not like. The castles also let the king or prince watch the people who lived around the castle.

There were not many castles in Europe around 900 AD, but around 1000 AD things changed. Suddenly, many people were building castles because there was an increase in the fighting in Europe during this time. In 1066, William the Conqueror ordered that many castles must be built in England because he was trying to control the people of England. But William was not alone. Because there were many kings and princes fighting in Europe, many more castles were built. These castles were built to be very strong, so some of them can still be seen today.

The first castles used a simple design. A tower was put on top of a lot of earth. All this earth was put under the tower to make it very tall. Moving all this earth made a huge hole all around the tower. Often, this large hole was filled with water. Stone or wood bridges were used to go across this water to get into the tower. A wall was built around the open area near the tower. The family of the king or prince and some of the people who served him lived within this area so that they would be safe. The first castles were made largely of wood in the beginning, but stone became more popular over time. This was because wood catches fire and burns easily. Stone was a better choice for castles.

Silk is a thin and pretty fiber (纤维制品). Thousands of years ago in ancient China, people began making silk fiber into a soft fabric (织物). It was very     1    . However, silk could only be used in the palace because of its high     2     at first.

Silk in China was not a secret.     3     ancient Chinese paid a visit to other countries, they usually carried gifts made of silk. The people in other countries started to use this unusual thing. It soon became widely     4     in the West.

Silk business always encouraged businessmen to search     5     ways from Europe to the Far East. Later they came to be     6     as “the Silk Road”. At the same time, some people found sea routes (路线).

The Silk Road played an important     7     in bringing different cultures and people from different countries into communication. To make successful deals, people had to learn the     8     and cultures of other countries first to make better communications. Through them, people could     9     knowledge about arts, science and technologies. No     10     in the past or at present, the Silk Road is of great help to the tour of the countries along the route.

Legend has it that Rome was founded in 753 BC by its first king, Romulus. It grew into a rich and powerful city during the next few     1     (hundred) years.

Roman legend says that Romulus had a twin brother. As babies they     2     (throw) in the area which later became Rome. A she-wolf found and raised them. When Romulus grew up, he became the first ruler of Rome!

By 117 AD the Roman Empire included the whole of Italy, all the lands     3     the Mediterranean (地中海) and much of Europe, including England, Wales and parts of Scotland. The Romans built such a huge empire and conquered (征服) new lands,     4     (thank) to their strong army. The Roman army could march (行军) up to 40 km a day! The Romans didn’t spend all     5     time fighting—they were amazing architects and engineers too! They built roads and walls—things we now take for granted.

    6     (bring) water to their cities, the clever Romans built aqueducts (渡槽)—a system of channels and bridges—to transport water for public baths and toilets!

The Romans liked to enjoy their food, often     7     (lie) down on a couch while eating with their hands. They sometimes used a spoon,     8     they would never use a knife and fork. Rich Romans liked to eat exotic (奇异的) food, such as stork (鹳), roast parrot and even flamingo!

One of the     9     (famous) buildings left by the Ancient Romans is the Colosseum (圆形大剧场) in the center of Rome. This     10    (be) where members of the public would come to watch sporting events and games, including battles between Roman gladiators (角斗士)!

Most of us have heard of the Silk Road. It     1     (provide) chances for trade (贸易) between the West and the East centuries ago.

    2     (travel) along the Silk Road was challenging in the past. The roads passed through many different countries. There was also the risk of     3     (meet) robbers (强盗) on the way.     4     even though there were dangers, many goods were sent in both directions.

From Marco Polo’s writings, we know     5     (clear) of some of the goods that businessmen traded from country to country. Chinese silk is the most well-known and gives the road     6     (it) name, but there were many more. From East to West, trade included tea, rice, paper and gunpowder (火药) and so on. From West to East, some     7     (example) are horses, honey and glass.

The exchange (交换) of goods was of course very important, and the arrival in the West of paper and gunpowder had     8     big influence on life there. But more than goods, the Silk Road was also responsible (负责任的) for the exchange and sharing     9     culture among all of the places along the roads.

Till today, the Silk Road has not been     10     (lose). Travelers from around the world take tours to different places to experience the different cultures along the Silk Road.